What is Active B12 & why is it important for athletes
Access this article Similar content being viewed by others Abbreviations AD: Alzheimers disease ADHD: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder ALDH: Aldehyde dehydrogenase BDNF: Brain-derived neurotropic factor CaMKII: Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II cAMP: Cyclic 3,5 adenine-monophosphate CDK5: Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 CK1: Casein kinase 1 CK2: Casein kinase 2 COMT: Catechol- O -methyl transferase CREB: cAMP Response element-binding protein CSF: Cerebral spinal fluid DAG: Diacylglycerol DARPP-32: cAMP-Regulated phosphoprotein 32-kDa DAT: Dopamine transporter DJ-1: PARK7 (Parkinson disease protein 7) DOPAC: 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid DOPAL: 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylaldehyde ELKs: Glutamine, leucine, lysine, and serine-rich protein ERK: Extracellular-signal regulated kinases FDA: US Food and Drug Administration GABA: -Amino butyric acid GIRK: G protein inwardly rectifying potassium channel GPCR: G protein-coupled receptor GRK: G protein-coupled receptor kinase GSK3: Glycogen synthase kinase 3 GSTM2: Glutathione transferase GTP: Guanosine triphosphate HVA: Homovanillic acid HD: Huntingtons disease HTT: Huntingtin gene IGF: Insulin growth factor IP3: Inositol trisphosphate JNK: c-Jun kinase L-DOPA: Levodopa LB: Lewy bodies LRRK2: Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase MAPT: Microtubule-associated protein MAT: Monoamine transporter MAO: Monoamine oxidase mTORC2: mTOR complex 2 NAc: Nucleus accumbens NET: Norepinephrine transporter NMDA: Glutamate N -methyl-d-aspartate Parkin: PRKN PD: Parkinsons disease PDPK1: Phosphatidylinositol-dependent kinase 1 PIP2: Phosphatidylinositol-2-phosphate PIP3: Phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate PKA: Protein kinase A PKC: Protein kinase C PLC: Phospholipase C PP1: Protein phosphatase 1 PP2A: Protein phosphatase 2A PP2B: Protein phosphatase 2B RGS: Regulators of G protein signaling RIM: Rab3a-interacting molecule ROS: Reactive oxygen species RTK: Receptor tyrosine kinase SNCA: -Synuclein STEP: Striatal-enriched tyrosine phosphatase SZ: Schizophrenia TAAR: Trace amine-associated receptors VMAT2: Vesicular monoamine transporter VTA: Ventral tegmental area References Agnati LF, Zoli M, Strmberg I, Fuxe K (1995) Intercellular communication in the brain: wiring versus volume transmission
Univ Med 2013;32:197-207
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Typical cost: $200 to $500/month (without insurance) Delivery: Daily topical application Some patients prefer gels because they deliver more stable hormone levels
On the other hand, GSH participates in enzyme-catalyzed redox cycling
